Turning Points - Age of Revolutions
Age of Revolutions (1815-1870)
The Age of Revolution is the period from approximately 1775 to 1848 in which a number of significant revolutionary movements occurred on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, in Europe and the Americas.
The period is noted for the change in government from absolutist monarchies to constitutionalist states and republics. The Age of Revolution includes the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, the Greek Revolution, the revolt of the slaves in Latin America, and the independence movements of nations in Latin America. The period would generally weaken the imperialist European states, who would lose major assets throughout the New World. For the British, the loss of the Thirteen Colonies would bring a change in direction for the British Empire, with Asia and the Pacific becoming new targets for outward expansi
The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were the origins of modern thought and modern political life. Although changes began with the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century and the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century, two late eighteenth-century events, the American and French Revolutions, mark the beginning of modern ideas about politics and society.
Europe had been in flux since 1789: borders shifted; monarchs deposed; empires established; republics emerged and disappeared. Revolutionary terms such as liberty, constitutionalism, equality and nationalism had spread throughout Europe, and could not be revoked. These ideas were a direct result of The Enlightenment.
Haitian Revolution
Toussaint L'Ouverture was an key Enlightened actor in the Haitian Revolution. Enlightened thought divided the world into "enlightened leaders" and "ignorant masses"; L'Ouverture attempted to bridge this divide between the popular masses and the enlightened few. L'Ouverture was familiar with Enlightenment ideas within the context of European imperialism. He attempted to strike a balance between Western Enlightened thought as a necessary means of winning liberation, and not propagating the notion that it was morally superior to the experiences and knowledge of people of color on Saint Domingue. As an extension of himself and his Enlightened education, L'Ouverture wrote a Constitution for a new society in Saint-Domingue that abolished slavery. The existence of slavery in Enlightened society was an incongruity that had been left unaddressed by European scholars. L’Overture took on this inconsistency directly in his constitution. In addition, L'Ouverture exhibited a connection to Enlightenment scholars through the style, language and accent of this text.
One of the most successful black commanders was Toussaint L'Ouverture, a self-educated former domestic slave. Like Jean François and Biassou, he initially fought for the Spanish crown in this period. After the British had invaded Saint-Domingue, L'Ouverture decided to fight for the French if they would agree to free all the slaves. Sonthonax had proclaimed an end to slavery on 29 August 1792. L'Ouverture worked with a French general, Étienne Laveaux, to ensure that all slaves would be freed. He brought his forces over to the French side in May 1794 and began to fight for the French Republic. Many enslaved Africans were attracted to Toussaint's forces. He insisted on discipline and forbade wholesale slaughter.
The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and the founding of the Republic of Haiti. The Haitian Revolution was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state. Furthermore, it is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred and as a defining moment in the histories of both Europe and the Americas. The rebellion began with a revolt of black African slaves in August 1791. It ended in November 1803 with the French defeat at the battle of Vertières. Haiti became an independent country on January 1, 1804.
Latin American Revolutions
Latin America experienced the independence revolutions at this time that separate the colonies from Spain and Portugal, creating new nations. These movements were generally led by the ethnically Spanish but locally born Criollo class; these were often wealthy citizens that held high positions of power but were still poorly respected by the European-born Spaniards. One such Criollo was Simón Bolívar, who led several revolutions throughout South America and helped establish Gran Colombia. Another important figure was José de San Martín who helped create the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata and became the first president of Peru. Some Latin American revolts, such as the Haitian Revolution, were led by slaves.
Conservatism, Liberalism, and Nationalism
Furthermore, the American and French revolutions led to the development of new political ideologies, visions of human nature, human society, and the world which propose some form of political and social organization as ideal.
Among these ideas were:
Conservatism: Conservatives considered society as an organism which changed very slowly, and opposed radical or sudden change.
Liberalism: Liberals saw change as normal and as the agent of progress. Conservatism to them was only a means of preserving the status quo, preserve the privileges of the few, and avoid dealing with injustices and inequality. They saw political and social theory as a means of acting in the best interests of society.
Nationalism: The experiences of people throughout the Napoleonic Wars combined with Enlightenment ideas led the people of Europe to think of themselves as members of distinctive communities who shared a common language and culture. This thinking gave rise to the birth of Nationalism, the movement to unite people of a common culture into a united community or nation. Nationalistic ideology often promised glory and prosperity to those who worked in the interests of the nation. The nation state became the model of political organization in Europe and later throughout the world.
