US History - Texas Independence & the Alamo
EQ: What were the Causes & Effects of the Mexican/American War?
Do Now: Define Sectionalism
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| ____ | Do Now | _________ / 2-5 Min | (Individual / Think-Pair-Share / Pair / Group #____) | |||||
| ____ | Mini Lesson | _________/ 15-20 Min | (Individual / Think-Pair-Share / Pair / Group #____) | |||||
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| ____ | Conferencing | _________ Min | (Individual / Pair / Group #____ / Throughout Class Period) | |||||
Western Expansion - Texas
In the span of five years, the United States increased its size by a third. It annexed Texas in 1845; negotiated with Britain for half of the Oregon country; and acquired California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming as a result of a war with Mexico.
America’s dramatic territorial expansion intensified the sectional conflict between North and South and raised the fateful and ultimately divisive issue of whether slavery would be allowed in the western territories.
In 1821, Mexico won independence for itself from Spain. The new Mexican government, in a move to encourage development of a thinly populated area we know today as southeastern Texas, offered land grants to anyone, including Americans, who would be willing to inhabit the land. In return, settlers promised to obey Mexican law and observe Roman Catholicism.
Among the first Americans to receive a land grant was Moses Austin, originally of Connecticut, who planned to establish a colony in Texas. Austin died before his dream could be fulfilled, so the task of leading the people to Texas fell to his son, Stephen F. Austin. In 1823, the younger Austin led 300 families to the banks of the Brazos River, where each family received about 200 acres of fertile farmland and more than 4000 acres of range land.
Under Austin's extraordinary organizational skills, the colony prospered. Soon, many thousands of Americans flowed into the territory, attracted by the rich farm soil and the generous land grant policy of the Mexican government. Some settlers brought slaves and started up cotton plantations.
By 1830, the number of Americans living in Texas greatly outnumbered Mexicans, a fact that deeply concerned Mexican authorities. In an attempt to curtail American influence in Texas, Mexico closed the border to immigration from the United States, imposed taxes on the importation of American goods, and restated that slavery on Mexican lands was prohibited. The Mexican government then sent troops into the Texas province to enforce its laws.
The Americans in Texas protested against what they perceived to be a violation of their individual rights.
As tensions escalated over the next several years, the Mexicans responded by sending more troops. Finally, in 1835, violence broke out, prompting the Texans to reject Mexican rule and declare their desire for self rule.
The Alamo
In late 1835, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, the latest in a series of Mexican military dictators, decided to crush the rebellion. With an army of 6000 men, Santa Anna crossed the Rio Grande headed north to take care of the Texans once and for all. On February 23, 1836, Santa Anna's army began a siege against 187 men garrisoned at a fortified former mission called the Alamo, in San Antonio. Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel William B. Travis, the brave defenders of the Alamo refused to surrender, despite overwhelming odds. Serving under Travis in the Alamo included a group of volunteers from Tennessee, led there by the famous backwoodsman Davy Crockett. On March 6, the Mexicans stormed the Alamo, finally scaling the walls and killing every last man inside, but at a cost to Santa Anna of some 1600 troops.
Texas Independence
While Santa Anna was preoccupied at the Alamo, Texas formally declared its independence from Mexico on March 2. While the heroic standoff at the Alamo continued, Sam Houston raised an army of Texans to carry the fight onward.
Houston's forces surprised Santa Anna at San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, shouting "Remember the Alamo!" as they swept through the Mexican encampment. The Mexican general himself was taken prisoner, but bargained for his release when he promised to recognize Texas independence.
Upon his return to Mexico, Santa Anna reneged on his pledge, but made no further attempts to corral the feisty Texans. The Republic of Texas, also called the Lone Star Republic, was born. Not surprisingly, Sam Houston was elected as its first president.
Annexation of Texas
During their revolution for independence, American sympathy was with the Texans, but when the new republic petitioned for statehood, strong opposition arose. Texas permitted slavery, causing members of Congress from northern states to argue against the admission of another southern slaveholding state. Others feared that Mexico would be provoked into war if Texas joined the Union. For these reasons, statehood for Texas was delayed.
As the election of 1844 approached, the annexation of Texas became a major campaign issue.
The Democrats rejected Martin Van Buren, a former president and member of their own party, in favor of James K. Polk of Tennessee, who strongly favored Texas statehood and westward expansion.
When the electoral college votes were counted, Polk easily outpaced Henry Clay of Kentucky. A majority of congressional candidates supporting expansion won likewise, a clear signal the public supported Texas annexation in particular and Manifest Destiny in general.
With the mandate sent by the voters, outgoing President John Tyler moved quickly to push a statehood resolution for Texas through both houses of Congress, ending the controversy over the fate of the Lone Star Republic. Finally, on December 29, 1845, Texas entered the Union as the twenty-eighth state.
President James K. Polk
James K. Polk is rated as one of the most effective presidents in US history, who met the demands of office with perseverance and great administrative skill. Under his watch, the US expanded all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The only president ever to achieve all of his platform goals, Polk declined to run for a second term. Three months after leaving the White House, the Tennessean was dead. Image courtesy of the National Archives.
When it appeared the Mexicans were willing to negotiate the dispute peacefully, President Polk secretly dispatched congressman John Slidell to Mexico City in November 1845, with instructions to pay off claims of about $2 million by American citizens against Mexico, if Mexico would acknowledge the Rio Grande as the southern boundary of Texas. Furthermore, Polk authorized an offer of $25 million for the purchase of California and $5 million for the New Mexico territory.
When news of Slidell's mission was leaked, the Mexican populace was incensed over what they perceived as yet another American expansionist scheme at the expense of Mexico.
Meanwhile, the Mexican government refused to speak with the American envoy, sending him home empty-handed. Mexican newspapers ridiculed American diplomacy and military prowess and called for a "necessary" war against the United States. Mexican army leaders bragged they could defeat their northern neighbor in a military confrontation, based on their experience at expelling the Spaniards and putting down internal revolutionists. They also assumed Great Britain would come to their aid, because the British had opposed the United States' annexation of Texas. They also believed American public opinion would be sharply divided over support of a war. Clearly, Mexico was itching for a fight.
Mexican-American War
Not everyone was as enthused over the idea of Manifest Destiny as were the Americans. Still seething over the loss of Texas, Mexican authorities were concerned over the possibility of giving up the vast region west of Texas, including California, to the United States. These and other factors led to a war between the United States and Mexico, finally breaking out in 1846.
Mexico's claim on California and the southwest was inherited from the Spaniards, dating back to the 15th century. Spanish law, architecture, culture, and language prevailed throughout the area. However, Mexico's grip on the territory was weak at best, in large part due to sparsely populated regions, poor administration and a revolving door of corrupt government officials.
In 1845, tensions between the United States and Mexico mounted as the dispute over the southern boundary of Texas magnified. The Mexican government asserted the boundary between Texas and Mexico was the Nueces River, while the Americans maintained that it was the Rio Grande River, about a hundred miles to the south of the Nueces, that separated the two nations.
In January 1846, President Polk ordered troops under General Zachary Taylor to cross the Nueces River, southward into the disputed zone, to the northern bank of the Rio Grande. In May, Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande and skirmished with American forces, killing or wounding sixteen. If Polk had been waiting for an excuse to ask Congress for a declaration of war against Mexico, he now had it. On May 13, Congress obliged. War with Mexico was on.
It soon became apparent that Mexico's boast of military superiority was premature. Even though the Mexican army was four times the size of the American army, the natural resources and industrial might of the United States enabled its troops to be better equipped and supplied. Many reservists were quickly called into active duty to rectify the initial imbalance of manpower. They were all trained and led by competent graduates of the national military academy at West Point. In addition, the small, but well organized American navy was capable of ferrying troops to within 250 miles of Mexico City. With these advantages, American military strategists were able to devise a war plan consisting of three fronts that effectively subdued the Mexicans.
The first front was to commence from the Rio Grande, where General Taylor's army sat primed to go. Taylor became a national hero following his victory at Buena Vista, giving control of northern Mexico to the Americans. Another group of Americans, led by General Stephen Kearny, marched from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, to Santa Fe, taking possession of the New Mexico territory. From there, Kearny proceeded to California and joined with Captain John C. Frémont (who had established temporarily the Republic of California, a.k.a. the Bear Flag Republic) and other American forces, to completely overcome Mexican resistance in California.
A third expedition, under the command of General Winfield Scott, hit Vera Cruz following an amphibious landing in March 1847 of 14,000 men from the Gulf of Mexico.
From there, the Americans embarked on a tortuous journey toward Mexico City, following the route traveled by Hernando Cortez centuries earlier. Nearly every step of the uphill, mountainous road leading to the "Halls of Montezuma" was bitterly challenged. Several difficult battles were fought along the way, but Scott continued to advance. After the fall of Chapultepec, the last major line of Mexican defense, American troops entered Mexico City as conquerors on September 14, 1847. For all practical purposes, the Mexican War had come to an end.
Treaty & Results of War
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, formally ended the war. Mexico was forced to give up California, the New Mexico territory, and recognize the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and Mexico.
In return, the United States paid Mexico $15 million and agreed to assume debts totaling over $3 million that Mexico owed to American citizens. From the "Mexican Cession" ultimately shaped the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
In 1853, Congress approved a payment of $10 million to Mexico for the purchase of some 50,000 square miles of desolation along the southern tip of what is today Arizona and New Mexico. The Gadsden Purchase, as it was called, was thought to be suitable for a southern transcontinental railroad being contemplated. Except for Alaska, the Gadsden Purchase filled out the present continental boundaries of the United States.
The dreams of all Americans who had believed in their nation's Manifest Destiny had materialized. The boundaries of the United States now reached from sea to shining sea.
Activities
Lesson PowerPoint: Texas Independence & Mexican-American War
Lesson Activity: What were the Causes & Results of the Mexican-American War? (Paragraph)